Islamic Salat Time in Athens Greece- أوقات الصلاة في أثينا اليونان

Islamic Salat Time in Athens Greece- أوقات الصلاة في أثينا اليونان

The Holy Quran - Quran mp3 - Koran kareem

The Holy Quran - Quran mp3 - Koran kareem

المصحف الرقمي الفلاشي

المصحف الرقمي الفلاشي

Calatorie la Damasc

Se-ntampla nu de mult,cateva luni in urma ,sa plec la Damasc.Cum am vazut eu Damascul?Ca in visul meu.Eram indragostita de o multime de imagini trimise de prietenii mei de acolo.E un oras impresionant.
Inca de la aterizarea in aeroport,parca ai fi intr-o alta lume.Era prima mea iesire intr-o tara musulmana.Orasul strabatut de bulevarde mari ,poseda spre periferie stradute inguste strajuite de cladiri vechi.Se remarca arhitectura specific araba ,migaloasa,cu mozaicuri si diferite lucraturi manuale.
Damascul vechi mi-a placut extrem de mult .Aici se simte spiritul islamului extrem de accentuat.Colindand pe stadutele inguste,nu puteam sa-mi iau privirea de la fiecare locusor in parte.As fi vrut sa-mi ramana foarte bine intiparite in minte.In Damascul vechi am avut minunata ocazie sa vad moscheia Ummayad.Impresionant.Pentru prima oara am pasit intr-o moscheie atunci.Prietenul care ma insotea mi-a explicat despre moscheie.Intrarea se face printr-o poarta uriasa unde,ca-n orica moscheie trebuie sa-ti lasi incaltarile.Eram extrem de uimita.Mi s-a spus ca trebuie sa am capul acoperit si de aceea,pentru turisti exista la poarta un chiosc,unde ,pentru o suma simbolica iti lasi papucii si ti se da un vesmant specific.Moscheia impresioneaza prin curtea ei interioara extrem de larga placata cu marmura alba ,lucioasa.
Ce este de remarcat ?in nauntrul moscheii se afla o biserica crestina ce adaposteste capul Sf.Ioan Botezatorul.Aici se inchina atat musulmanii cat si crestinii,dat fiind ca biserica e amplasata in sala de rugaciuni.Ar fi multe de spus despre moscheie ,caci are o istorie extraordinara,dar am vorbit in alt mesaj blog despre ea..si voi reveni si cu varianta in limba romana.
Damascul adaposteste un intreg mozaic de oameni si religii.Remarcabil e ca toti traiesc in fratie si respect.
Prietenii mei mi-au povestit ca ,de Ramadan,desi postesc numai musulmanii ,ceilalti respecta acest lucru si nu mananca sau beau apa pe strada.Prieteniile aici ,nu tin cont de religie.Si poti vedea musulmani intrand in bisericile crestine,si crestini mergand la moscheie.
Din toate locurile pe care le-am vizitat,Damascul mi-a ramas cel mai mult in suflet.Si chiar daca sunt departe sufletul meu va trai la Damasc...
Mi-e dor de strazile lui inguste si de toti prietenii mei de acolo.De sandwich-ul gustos si iaurtul servit aproape de Ummayad in Damascul vechi.De sirurile de magazinase cu suveniruri de la care nu-ti puteai lua ochii si in general,de simplitatea locuitorilor.
In drum spre aeroport am intrat intr-un local unde se putea fuma narghilea si servi ceai sau cafea..etc.Nu mica mi-a fost mirarea sa vad aici femei foarte frumoase si elegante fumand narghilea.M-am despartit de Damasc greu,mi-as fi dorit sa mai raman.Dar sper sa revin acolo.
Si acum multi dintre cei care i-am cunoscut si nu stiau engleza ,zambesc ,amintindu-si cum vorbeam fiecare ..pe limba lui.

Legea islamică

Shari'a (ar.: šarī‘a "calea cea bună", avea în preislam sensul de "cărare ce duce la o oază", aşadar singura cărare care-i garanta viaţa celui ce-o urma) este legea islamică ce cuprinde totalitatea poruncilor lui Dumnezeu aşa cum au fost ele păstrate în Coran şi în Sunna (Cutuma, bazată pe hadīth-uri) sau deduse, uneori, prin alte mijloace . Erudiţii musulmani au elaborat o ştiinţă numită fiqh (jurisprudenţa islamică) referitoare la shari'a prin care se încearcă găsirea unor răspunsuri la toate problemele vieţii, de la cele mai simple şi banale, legate de cotidian, până la cele mai complicate, legate de doctrină. Legea se referă la cei "Cinci Stâlpi" ai islamului, la dogmă, la dreptul privat, la dreptul penal, la viaţa socială, familială, la interdicţii alimentare, la impunerea unei anumite vestimentaţii (mai ales în cazul femeilor) etc.

Legea islamică se bazează pe cinci postulate care guvernează întreaga viaţă a unui musulman:

+ datoria obligatorie (ar. : fard) care trebuie îndeplinită întocmai, aşa cum a fost prescrisă. fără nici o abatere. Cel ce încalcă o datorie obligatorie este supus pedepsei lui Dumnezeu în Viaţa de Apoi şi pedepsei legiuitorului în această viaţă;
+ îndatorirea (ar. : wāği sau ceea ce este de dorit a fi îndeplinit având ca model faptele profetului Muhammad. Dacă musulmanul îndeplineşte îndatorirea va fi răsplătit, dacă nu o îndeplineşte nu va fi pedepsit, ci va fi considerat doar neglijent;
+ lucrul îngăduit (ar. : halāl), ceva ce este permis, licit (în orice domeniu : alimentar, vestimentar, social etc.);
+ lucrul nerecomandabil (ar. : makrūh, "detestabil", "scârbos, un lucru pe care Legea l-a interzis, însă fară să insiste asupra acestei interziceri.
+ lucrul interzis (ar. : harām), un lucru oprit total de către Legiuitor, iar săvârvirea lui atrage după sine atât pedeapsa în Lumea de Apoi, cât şi o pedeapsă în lumea aceasta.

Legea islamică la nivel de guvernare si justiţie socială se aplică doar acolo unde la conducere se află un guvern islamic.

Există şcoli diferite şi mişcări în cadrul islamului care permit o anumită flexibilitate. Mai mult, islamul este o religie foarte diversă pe măsură ce multe culturi l-au adoptat. În acelaşi timp totuşi, se pot decela anumite constante ale gândirii juridice islamice, care traverseaza atât timpul cât şi spaţiul. Explicaţia acestui fenomen stă în unicitatea surselor care stau la baza viziunii juridice a Legii islamice, şi deşi aceasta din urmă este interpretabilă şi modernizabilă, ea comportă totuşi anumite linii directoare greu de adus la zi, o dovadă fiind şi dificultăţile majore cu care se confruntă toate statele islamice în procesul lor de modernizare şi democratizare drepturile omului.

Obligaţiile musulmanului

Obligaţiile musulmanului se constituie, în primul rând, din "Cei Cinci Stâlpi" (ar.: al-arkan al-khamsa). Pentru ducerea la îndeplinire a acestor obligaţii, musulmanul trebuie să fie major şi cu mintea întreagă. De asemenea, înainte de a începe îndeplinirea uneia dintre obligaţii, el trebuie să-şi exprime (în sinea lui) intenţia (ar.: niyya) a ceea ce vrea să facă, adică să conştientizeze pe deplin actul respectiv. Din această cauză, îndeplinirea unei obligaţii este precedată de o serie de pregătiri (cum ar fi spălările rituale, de exemplu) care au exact această menire.

* Mărturisirea de credinţă (ar.: šahāda), prin care o persoană îşi exprimă apartenenţa la islam, şi care constă în afirmarea unicităţii lui Dumnezeu, al cărui trimis este Muhammad: lā ilāha illā allāh wa muhammad rasūlu-llāh "Nu exista Dumnezeu în afară de Allah, iar Muhammad este trimisul lui Allah".

* Rugăciunea (al.: salāt),ce constă într-un ansamblu de gesturi - prosternări, îngenuncheri, înclinări - însoţite de rostirea unor formule rituale, se desfăşoară de cinci ori pe zi, în momente bine precizate, anunţate de muezin (fie direct prin vocea sa , fie printr-o înregistrare): rugăciunea din zori (Fajr ), de la prânz (Dhuhr ); de după-amiază (Asr ), de dinainte de apusul soarelui (Maghrib), de după lăsarea serii (Isha'a ). Vinerea, la prânz, are loc rugăciunea comunitară la moschee, rugăciune însoţită de predica (khutba) imamului.

* Postul (ar.: sawm), ce constă în abţinerea de la mâncare, băutură, relaţii sexuale pe timpul zilei (începând cu puţin înainte de răsăritul soarelui până după asfinţitul acestuia)pe tot parcursul lunii Ramadan, a IX-a lună a calendarului islamic.

* Dania (ar.: zakāt), care reprezintă a 40-a parte (2,5%) din economiile ţinute mai mult de un an, cu puţine excepţii, pentru fiecare musulman a cărui avere depăşeşte media, şi 10% sau 20% din producţia agricolă. Aceşti bani sau produse vor fi distribuite săracilor.

* Pelerinajul (ar.: hağğ), realizat în primele două săptămâni ale lunii dhū-l-hiğğa, la Mecca şi în împrejurimile sale, care este obligatoriu o dată în viaţă pentru cei care au posibilitatea materială.

Notă: Războiul sfânt (ar.: ğihād) a fost considerat al şaselea stâlp doar de către kharigiţi.

مخطوطات البحر الميت

مخطوطات البحر الميت(قمران) تضم ما يزيد على 850 قطعة مخطوطة، بعضها مما سمي لاحقا الكتاب المقدس وبعضها من كتب لم تكن تعرف أو كانت مفقودة، أول من عثر عليها هو راع فلسطيني اسمه محمد الذيب واكتشف المزيد بين عامي 1947 و1956 في 11 كهفًا في وادي قمران قرب خربة قمران شمال البحر الميت. وقد أثارت المخطوطات اهتمام الباحثين والمختصين بدراسة نص العهد القديم لأنها تعود لما بين القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد والقرن الأول منه. وقد اكتشفت في كهوف قرب البحر الميت في موقع خربة " قمران " لذلك فهي تسمى أيضًا " لفائف قمران ". وهي تتبع طائفة يهودية، ربما كانت طائفة " الإسينيين " التي انعزلت عن بقية المدن اليهودية، وربما بنت مدينة صغيرة في هذا المكان، لكنها تحطمت بفعل زلزال (عام 31ق. م)، وأعيد بناء الموقع عام 4ق. م، ويظن أن الرومان أحرقوه عام 68م. والمرجح أن أفراد هذه الملة لم يكونوا يعيشون في هذه الأبنية، بل في الكهوف المجاورة، وفي أكواخ أو خيام من الجلود أوالطين.

وقد تم العثور على جزء من هذه المخطوطات من قبل بعض البدو في كهف، فيما يقال أثناء بحثهم عن ماعز ضلت منهم، فباعوها لبائعين سريانيين حملاها لمطرانهم الذي هربها بدوره إلى الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية عام 1948م.

ثم قامت إسرائيل باحتلال القدس والضفة الغربية عام 1967م، وأصبح موقع خربة قمران والمدرسة التوراتية الفرنسية ومتحف " روكفلر " أو "متحف الآثار الفلسطيني " في القدس المحتوي على بقية المخطوطات التي لم ترحل لأمريكا تحت السيطرة الإسرائيلية. وقامت إسرائيل بنقل مخطوطات البحر الميت من متحف الآثار الفلسطيني إلى متحف مسمى "معبد الكتاب" في القدس الغربية، كانت تحتفظ فيه بالمخطوطات التي اشترتها في الخمسينات في أميركا من مطران السريان

كتبت بعض المخطوطات على ورق البردي، وبعضها على جلد وبعضها على صفائح نحاس. وحفظت بعض المخطوطات بشكل جيد لأنها خبئت في جرار فخارية في كهوف منطقة صحراوية.

ومن بين مخطوطات البحر الميت ما هو نصوص طويلة، وما هو جذاذة صغيرة، يبلغ عددها مجتمعة عشرات الآف من القطع الصغيرة، بحيث يبلغ مجموع نصوص مخطوطات البحر الميت نحو 900 نص.، ينسبها أكثر الدارسين للطائفة الإسينية اليهودية. وتقسم النصوص إلى:

• 30% من النصوص من الكتاب المقدس العبري، قطع من كل الأسفار عدا سفر استر.
• 25% من النصوص هي من نصوص يهودية ليست من الكتاب المقدس، مثل سفر اخنوخ وشهادة لاوي.
• 30% من النصوص من التفاسير المتعلقة بالكتاب المقدس.
• 15% من النصوص لم تترجم أو لم تعرف هويتها بعد.

وأغلب النصوص مكتوب بالعبرية، والبعض منها بالآرامية والقليل باليونانية.

ستعملت بعض الترجمات الإنكليزية الحديثة للكتاب المقدس هذه المخطوطات لتنقيح النص الكتابي للعهد القديم، فعلى سبيل المثال يوافق أغلب المختصين أن هناك أية مفقودة من النص الماسوري القياسي في المزمور 145 بعد الآية 13. وتظهر هذه الآية في الترجمة الأمريكية الحديثة NAB وترجمة الآخبار السعيدة GNB والنسخة العالمية الحديثة NIV والترجمة المعيارية المراجعة الحديثة NRSV. فالمختصون يعلمون أن أبيات المزمور 145 تبدأ بحرف عبري حسب الترتيب، لكن بين آية 13 (מ/ ميم) وآية 14 (ס/ سامك) يفاجئ المختص بفقدان الحرف נ نون، وهذه الآية أعيد اكتشافها بفضل مخطوطات البحر الميت كما في الترجمة العالمية الحديثة هنا. وهذا ليس مثالا على تحريف متعمد للنصوص، بل يظن المختصون خطأ في نقل الناسخ غير مقصود، والاية محفوظة في الترجمة السبعينية والارامية ويمكن قرائتها في الترجمة الكاثوليكية العربية: ن- الرَّبُ أَمين في كُلَ أَقْوالِه وبار في جَميعَ أَعمالِه.

يمكن تقسيم محتويات مخطوطات جماعة قمران الخاصة بأسفار التناخ على النحو التالي من حيث المغائر:

1. عثر في المغارة الأولى على نسختين من سفر اشعياء. ووجدت النسخة الأولى كاملة, أما الثانية فعثر منها على حوالي الثلث فقط. كما عثر في نفس المغارة على أجزاء من أسفار التكوين والخروج واللاويين والتثنية والقضاة وصموئيل وحزقيال، كما عثر أيضاً على ثلاث نسخ من سفر المزامير.
2. في المغارات الثانية والثالثة والخامسة والسادسة عثر على عدد قليل نسبياً من المخطوطات مقارنة بما عثر في المغارة الأولى. وكشف في تلك المغارات عن بقايا سفر التكوين, الخروج, العدد, ارمياء, المزامير, أيوب, نشيد الانشاد, نحميا. كما عثر في هذه المغارات على بقايا من ثلاث نسخ من سفر اللاويين وأجزاء عديدة من سفر الملوك.
3. عثر في المغارة الرابعة على العديد من اجزاء من مخطوطات ولم يعثر فيها على مخطوطات كاملة وتعد هي أغنى المغائر على الإطلاق من حيث كمية المخطوطات وقيمتها. ومن محتويات تلك المغارة أجزاء من سفر الخروج واشعياء والامثال ومجموعة نسخ من أسفار الانبياء الصغار. وكذلك عثر على أجزاء من سفر التكوين وعلى أجزاء من إرميا ودانيال.
4. عثر في المغارة الحادية عشر على نسخة شبه كاملة لأسفار العهد القديم ومنها نسخة من المزامير ومن سفر اللاويين, وهناك لفافة لم تفتح بعد ويقال انها ترجمة أرامية لسفر ارميا.

وخلاف ذلك عثر من ضمن ما عثر عليه بقايا من النص العبري الأصلي لأجزاء من الأسفار الخارجيه تختلف في صيغتها عن الصيغة اليونانية المتواجدة، ولايعرف حتى الآن ما هي علاقة جماعة قمران أو صحراء يهودا كما جاءت تسميتهم في دائرة المعارف العبرية، وهل كانت مقدسة في نظرهم مثل بقية اسفار العهد القديم، خاصة وأن تلك الجماعة تستخدم مفاهيم خاصة تختلف عن المفاهيم الواردة في تلك الأسفار الخارجية، أم انها أجزاء أقحمت على باقي المخطوطات لأسباب غير معروفة.

وهي مجموعة من النصوص خاصة بجماعة قمران وتلقي اضواء على عقيدتها، وسلوكها، وحياتها

(سيرَخ هايحاد)إن دستور الجماعة هو أحد أول المخطوطات الكبيرة المكتشفة في قمران عام 1947, ومصدره المغارة الأولى هو النسخة غير الكاملة دون شك لمؤلف شعبي جداً بقمران، ومن خلال المغائر المختلفة يعتقد أنه كانت توجد منه نحو 12 نسخة, ويبدو أن الاجزاء التي وجدت في المغارة الرابعة أوضح. وتتألف المخطوطة من خمس أوراق من البردي تتضمن 11 عموداً, إضافة إلى ملحقين وجدت أجزاؤهما في المغارة الأولى أيضاً. ويضم ثلاث وثائق منفصلة نصاً ولكنها تتفق مضموناً في تنظيم شئون الجماعة وعلاقتها الحالية والمستقبلية بما حولها. وتدلنا هذه الوثيقة على انتهاج الطائفة أساليب صارمة في التنظيم وفرضها لعقوبات على من يخالف نظامها أو ينشر أسرارها، وهي تشير إلى علاقة الفرد بالآخرين ممن هم خارج جماعته وإلى عدم جواز مخالطتهم أو الإفاضة عليهم مما أفاء الله عليه من علم بالشريعة وأسرارها

• الجزء الأول ويشتمل على العنوان والمقدمة ذات الأسلوب البليغ وهي تصف النمط العام لحياة الجماعة ووصف الاحتفال عند الدخول في الميثاق وهو مستلهم من سفر التثنية ثم يلي ذلك الشروط الصارمة للتقدم في الملة ثم عظة وخطبة حول الاقدار المتعارضة كما تشير إلى كيفية فرض روح الشر لسطانها أحياناً على أبناء النور لإخضاعهم وتعذيبهم.
• الجزء الثاني يفرد مساحة أوسع للشرائع وأسس الدعوة ثم التحدث حول كيفية الدخول إلى الملة والتخلي الضروري عن كل ما يتعلق بالمال والشر ويلي ذلك ما يتعلق بالتنظيم الداخلي الدقيق للجماعة ومنها واجب الطاعة وواجب الدراسة الدائمة وقاعدة النصاب للاجتماع والمتألف من عشرة أشخاص, وأيضاً وظيفة معلم المبتدئين في الملة. ونجد أخيراً تشريعاً حقيقياً يعتمد على مبدأ التوبة ويعدد أخطاء العاصين والعقوبات التي يستحقونها بسببها.
• الجزء الثالث يمتلئ بالمقاطع الأناشيدية ويعرض مبادئ المجتمع المثالي الكامل كما تشير العبارة " عندما تتم هذه الأشياء في إسرائيل ".

وجد هذا المدرج في المغارة الأولى وهو مخطوط ليس له مثيل من حيث المحافظة عليه ماعدا أطرافه السفلى التي تاَكلت بعض الشئ وعندما فتح الملف كان طوله أكثر من 9 أقدام حوالي 2.90 م وعرضه أكثر من ستة بوصات حوالي 0.16 م ويتألف من شرائح جلدية والنص عبارة عن 19 عمودًا جاء فيه تعليمات لإدارة الحرب. ولا يستطيع المرء أن يعطي جواباً واضحاً عما إذا كانت هذه الحرب وشيكة الحدوث ام انها حدثت بالفعل في وقت كتابة الوثيقة. وهي عبارة عن خطة حربية محكمة (خيالية) يتوقع أفراد الجماعة (سبط لاوي ويهودا وبنيامين.. المدعوون بأبناء النور) أنهم سيخوضونها قريباً، بعد عودتهم من «صحراء الأمم» في دمشق فسيُعينهم الرب بملائكته وجنده ليقضوا على كل الأعداء التقليديين المذكورين في العهد القديم (الفلسطينيين والآشوريين والأدوميين والمؤابيين والعمونيين والأغريق..المدعوين بأبناء الظلام). وتبدو الإشارات إلى الشعوب المعادية في اللفيفة كإشارات رمزية إلى جماعات عرْقية سكنت فلسطين في الفترة الممتدة من القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد حتى القرن الأول الميلادي. وفي مطلع تلك المخطوطة مقدمة قصيرة تتنبأ بأندلاع حرب، ثم تعقبها اللوائح التي ترسم أسلوب التجنيد والتعبئة للجيش _ للحرب والعبادة _ إلى جانب وضع لخطة الحرب ذاتها. كما تتضمن الوثيقة الجدول الزمني الذي سيقوم خلاله أبناء النور بالاستيلاء على العالم كله فضلاً إلى الإشارة إلى الأسلحة المستخدمة وأساليب القتال. وفي الوثيقة أيضاً الخطوات المستقبلية التي ستتلى قبل وأثناء المعارك والاناشيد التي ستتلى بعدالحرب وتحقيق النصر. والجزء الأخير من المخطوطة مفقود وقد اعاد يادين دراسة هذه المخطوطة. ويشير (اندريه سومر) في الجزء الأول من كتابه مخطوطات البحر الميت إلى ان هذا الميثاق لا يحمل عنواناً أو اسماً لمؤلفه مثل بقية مخطوطات قمران, وهو مؤلف شعبي في قمران كما تدل الأجزاء الكبيرة نسبياً منه والتي وجدت في المغارة الرابعة فيوجد حوالي ست مخطوطات مختلفة للنص نفسه. ويلاحظ ان هذه الأجزاء تتناقض أحياناً مع نص مدرج المغارة الأولى الذي نشر عام 1954م وعلى الرغم من وحدة الأسلوب، لكن يوجد بينهم العديد من التباينات والتعارضات فلاحظ أنه في العمود التاسع سرد لنهاية المعركة لنعود إلى بداية التحضيرات للمعركة في العمود العاشر بإدخال أسلحة جديدة. كما يشير إلى أن الجزء الثاني من تنظيم الحرب به أسلوب أكثر خطابية في حين أن الجزء الأول مخصص أصلاً للوصف والتعليمات.

(أبوكريفون التكوين أو بيريشيت أبوكريفون): هو مخطوط مضغوط ومتماسك وهش أوشك على التكسر، وهناك قطع صغيرة وعمود كامل قد فقد من المخطوطة منذ اكتشافها وقد جاء بالمخطوطة أحداث لقصة قصيرة تبدأ حين يسمع لامك أباه أخنوخ بنذر أبناء زمانه باقتراب يوم الدين ونهاية العالم, فتأثر لامك بذلك وايقن أن الله سيهلك العالم الفاجر ويأتي بخلق جديد, وقد سجلت كل تلك النذور والتحاذير في سفره (سفر أخنوخ وهو أيضاً من الأسفار الخارجية الموجودة ضمن مخطوطات البحر الميت) وعن هذا المخطوط قال اثنان من علماء اليهود: أن هذا النص يضم آيات من سفر التكوين أعيدت كتابتها باللغة الآرامية التي كان اليهود يتحدثون بها في ذلك العصر _ أيام المسيح _ ولذلك فهي قدمت لنا فهم للكلمات الغامضة الآرامية المنسوبة إلي السيد المسيح. وبالرغم من انه سفر غير قانوني إلا انه يُعتبَر إعادة صياغة لأحداث قصة لامك. والشخصية الأساسية في السفر هي شخصية لامك حفيد إحنوخ والد نوح. إلا أن المضمون العام يتضمن تكرار قصة الخلق والآباء مع إضافات عديدة منها ما يشير إلى التشكك في ولادة نوح والتساؤل عن ولادته الإعجازية بتناسل البشر مع أنصاف الملائكة (وهي كائنات سماوية شاع الاعتقاد في وجودها في الفترة من القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد وحتى القرن الأول الميلادي)، الأمر الذي يوضح صلة طائفة قمران بالمسيحية الناشئة التي تبنَّت مثل هذه الاعتقادات.

(هودايوت): عثر عليها بين المخطوطات التي وجدت في المغارة الأولى بقمران ويمكن ترجمتها ب " أعمال النعمة " وهو مدرج في حالة سيئة جداً أمكن ترميم 18 عمود منها وبقى نحو 68 جزء منه يصعب ترميمه وهو يعد من أقدم وأهم نصوص قمران وقد وجد في المغارة الرابعة ستة أجزاء أخرى منه انما بحالة سيئة أيضاً وعلى الرغم من ذلك التلف إلا أنه يبدو أن كل نشيد فيه يبدأ بعبارة " إنني أمجدك، أدوناي ".

وكانت تلك المزامير عندما اشتراها سيكنيك مؤلفة من أربع قطع ثلاث منه في رزمة واحدة والرابعة كانت إحدى المخطوطين الذين لم يفتحمها سكنيك مدة من الزمن وتشمل القطع الأربع عددًا من الأعمدة _ كما أشرنا _ كل عمود طوله حوالي 13 بوصة وفي العمود الواحد 39 سطر وتلك الأعمدة أطول بقليل من الأعمدة التي وجدت في سفر أشعياء وأكثر سطوراً. ويمكن القول انه من 18 عمود المحفوظين يوجد ما يقرب من 30 مزمور وهو كعمل أدبي قريب جدا من مزامير التوراه وبخاصة مزامير " أعمال النعمة "، لكن المؤلف أيضاً يشمل مزامير توبة ومراث مستوحاة من مراثي أرمياء ومزامير حكمة قريبة من روح مزامير أيوب وأناشيد نجدها في أعمال بن سيراخ وأمثال سليمان وعموماً تلك المزامير تتوافق مع العقيدة الموجودة في التوراه. والإنسان الذي يقرأ تلك المزامير يجد فيها لذة لأنها تدل على أن ممارسة نظم الشعر وتأليف الترانيم والمدائح كانت لا تزال حية قائمة ولو إنها لم تكن ذات قوة شعرية وأبداع وأصالة التي هي في مزامير العهد القديم. وقد أشار المسيري في موسوعته أن تلك المزامير تتضمن تصويراً لمعلِّم الجماعة ومعاناته مع مناوئيه، ومحاولتهم إثناءه عن شريعة الرب. ومع أنه لا يذكر اسمه تحديداً، إلا أن الإشارة إلى الأسرار الإلهية التي انكشفت له تعبِّر عن الاتجاه الواضح داخل فكر الجماعة.

(عهد دمشق): عُثر من الوثيقة الدمشقية (سفر عهد دمشق) على 12 جزءاً مقتطفاً من سفر عهد دمشق القاهري الذي كان قد عثر عليه سلومو شيختر عام 1890 ونشر نسختيه عام 1910. وكان أول نص عُثر عليه في القاهرة في معبد بن عزرا (بالفسطاط)، وأُطلق عليه "جذاذات من وثيقة صدوقية". وقد دلتنا الأسفار الخارجية (بالعبرية والآرامية) التي لها صلة وثيقة بمضمون كتابات الطائفة وبلغتها على أنها جميعاً تنتمي إلى التيار الديني نفسه الذي تمثله جماعة قمران المنشقة. وتمثل وثيقة دمشق القاهرية نقداً لاذعاً للفرق الدينية التي انعزلت عنها الجماعة، وتكمل لنا صورة التطور التاريخي للجماعة اليهودية عموماً. وتطلق الجماعة على أفرادها اسم «أبناء العهد الجديد»، وهو الاسم الذي أدَّى ببعض الباحثين للربط بينها وبين المسيحية. ودلنا الكشف الأثري على الدأب الذي تميَّز به سكان قمران في استنساخ الأسفار المقدَّسة وكتابات الطائفة، وعلى أنهم خصصوا لهذه الغاية قاعة معيَّنة أقاموا فيها الموائد والمقاعد للكتابة، وأنشؤوا مغاسل (قاعات استحمام) للتطهر الطقوسي قبل بداية أداء الشعائر وقسَّموها حسب درجة قدسية كل فرد ينتمي إلى الجماعة. وقد سميت بالدمشقية لورود كلمة دمشق فيها وليس لانها وجدت في دمشق كما بينت النصوص اعلاه .

Marea Moarta si manuscrisele ei..

Acum 50 de ani in cateva pesteri din desertul Iudeii nu departe de tarmul de nord-vest al Marii Moarte au fost descoperite intamplator stravechi manuscrise religioase, texte in parte cu caracter canonic dar si apocrife, cunoscute astazi sub denumirea de Manuscrisele de la Marea Moarta. Aceasta descoperire a fost considerata cea mai importanta de acest fel, de la descoperirea in 1844 si in 1859 a tezaurului de manuscrise aflate in manastirea Sfanta Ecaterina de pe Muntele Sinai.

Descoperirea primelor manuscrise in desertul Iudeii a fost pur intamlatoare. In primavara anului 1947 sau poate chiar 1945, nu se stie cu precizie nici data nici imprejurarile cand a avut loc aceasta descoperire epocala, beduinii din desertul Iudeii pasteau caprele si oile in regiunea Wadi Qurman. Un tanar beduin, Mohamed eb-Dib (Mohamed Lupul) cautand o capra ratacita de restul turmei a descoperit intr-una din multele pesteri raspandite in zona, niste suluri din piele scrise in ebraica si care mai tarziu s-au dovedit a avea o vechime de peste 2000 de ani.

De la descoperirea lor de catre pastorii beduini manuscrisele au avut parte de o viata, am putea spune plina de aventuri, trecand de la un proprietar la altul, devenind obiecte de tranzactie comerciala sau lasate in asteptare pentru descifrare sau comercializare.

Evenimentele legate de aceste manuscrise se desfasoara in jurul a trei institutii situate in orasul Ierusalim: manastirea siro-iacobita de rit monofizic ( biserica siro-iacobita este o ramura a crestinismului care nu recunoaste dogma oficiala crestina despre dubla natura,umana si divina, a lui Iisus, ci numai pe cea divina), scoala americana de studii orientale si Universitatea din Ierusalim.

Astfel in 1947 cativa pastori din tribul taamnirilor veniti la Bethleem pentru a-si vinde produsele si a-si cumpara marfurile necesare au oferit spre vanzare, unui anticar, cateva manuscrise pe pergamnet, pentru o suma modesta. Acesta a refuzat si atunci beduinii s-au adresat unui negustor care avea si un atelier de cizmarie, pentu cumpararea bucatilor de piele. Acest negustor, Halila Iskander, cunoscut si sub numele de Kando, fiind membru al comunitasii siro-crestine a realizat ca se afla in fata unor maanuscrise vechi si il instinteaza pe mitropolitul bisericii, Mar Atanasie, care era si staretul manastirii Sfantul Marcu. Acesta nu cunostea limba manuscriselor dar si-a dat seama cu sunt foarte valoroase pentru ca ele proveneau din regiune Qurman, regiune nelocuita de secole, fapt ce oferea garantia vechimii lor. Staretul a vrut sa ia legatura cu beduinii dar taamirii plecasera.

Un timp nu s-a mai auzit nimic despre aceste manuscrise, dar Kando, negustorul a carui pravalie era cautata de beduini, a fost instiintat sa-i anunte pe pastori ca staretul era interesat de cumararea bucatilor de piele.

Astfel s-a reusit cumpararea unora dintre aceste manuscrise, unele de catre staretul Atanasie iar altele, mai putine de catre profesorul Sukenik de la Universitatea din Ierusalim., in total sapte suluri.

Doua dintre suluri cuprindeau fragmenete ale aceluiasi manuscris asa-numitul Statut al comunitatii iar printre celelalte se afla textul complet al Cartii proorocului Isaia. De pe un sul prost conservat oamneii de stiinta au descifrat numle Lamateh si l-au intitulat Apocalipsul lui Lamateh, ca mai apoi dupa ce a fost desfasurat si restaurat sa primeasca numele de Apocriful Genezei caci continea povestea inflorita a Cartii Facerii din Biblie.

Profesorul Sukenik este cel dintai care a publicat descrierea primelor manuscrise, in 1948 sub titlul" Sulurile tainuite". Prima editie integrala a textelor celor sapte suluri a aparut mult mai tarziu, dupa moartea profesorului Sukenik, sub indrumarea elevilor si colaboratorilor sai care i-au continuat munca, in special a fiul sau Ygal Yadin. Au aparut intai descrierea primelor sase suluri in ebraica si mai apoi al saptelea in engleza, acestea fiind o mica parte a textelor cunoscute sub numele de „Manuscrisele de la Marea Moarta“.

In decursul timpului staretul manastirii Sfantul Marcu, Atanasie, intelegand valoarea adevarata a manuscriselor a continuat cercetarea pesterilor din deset cu ajutorul oamenilor manastirii si desi a declarat ca nu a mai gasit nimic, este posibil sa fi gasit totusi fragmentele ce lipseau din manuscrisele achizitionate, precum si alte materiale, pe care mai tarziu le-a oferit spre verificarea competenta a specialistilor, pentru a se convinge inca o data de autenticitatea lor, dar declarand ca aceste manuscrise au fost gasie in incinta manastirii. Era poate o masura de protectie, pentru ca acestea sa nu intre in posesia statului pe teritoriul caruia fusesera gasite.

Nu se stie insa cate manuscrise s-au pierdut in perioada lunga a cautarilor de catre pastorii seminomazi care nu stiau sa le manuiasca pentru a le proteja si a nu le deteriora si pentru care ele reprezentau doar o sursa de venit.

O buna bucata de vreme aceste cautari de noi manuscrise si descifrari ale manuscriselor deja cunoscute au trenat desi in zona se gaseau multe institutii stiintifice specializate in filologie clasica si studii biblice. O explicatie ar fi framantarile politice ce aveau loc in zona si aparitia celor doua state noi, Iordania si Israel care au impartit in doua orasul Ierusalim si astfle institutiile s-au trezit despartite unele de altele, comunicarea fiind ingreunata de problemele politice.

In anii care au urmat de la descoperirea primelor manuscrise au fost cercetate in jur de 300 de pesteri, naturale sau sapate de mana omului; multe dintre acestea erau goale. In circa 30 de pesteri s-au gasit resturi de cultura materiala de interes minor pentru stiinta dar in alte 11 pesteri din regiunea Qumran si de la Wabi Murabb’at ca si in ruinele manastirii Sfantul Sava s-au gasit depozite de manuscrie de valoare, achizitionate fie de la beduini, fie de la negustori care le cumparasera de la pastorii taamiri.

In total au fost descoperite asemenea mansucrise (precum si monezi si alte obiecte ) in jur de 40 000 fragmente reprezentand vestigiile a aproximativ 600 de carti, scrise in piele (pergamnet), papirus si tablete de cupru in opt limbi si dialecte, texte cuprinzand o perioada de un mileniu( secolul al III-lea i.Hr. - secolul al VII-lea d. Hr.).

Cele sapte mansucrise din prima pestera (achizionate in mare parte de staretul Atanasie si pe de alta parte de profesorul Sukenik) sunt insa printre cele mai importante.

La studierea manuscrisselor descoperite in desertul Iudeii au participat paleografi, arheologi, filologi istorici, cercetarori ai artei antice, etc.

Compararea acestor manuscrise cu altele gasite cam in aceeasi regiune, cu caractere asemanatoare, la fel de vechi, precum si cu alte documente decoperite de-a lungul secolelor poate conduce la concluzia ca manuscrisele ascunse in imprejurimile Marii Moarte de comunitatea din Qurman au fost scoase la diferite date, insiruite de-a lungul secolelor. Se poate insa ca nu fiecare descoperire sa fi fost consemnata in scris si nu toate au ajuns pana in zilele noastre. Printre manuscrisele asemanatoare putem da exemplu manuscrisele descoperiet in 217 in apropiere de Ierihon, de catre Origene, teolog vestit al crestinismului primitv, manuscrise continand o versiune greaca a Cartii Pasalmilor alaturi de alte carti in greaca si ebraica, intr-un vas de argila si scrisoarea mitropolitului nestorian la Seleuciei, Timotheos , miytropolitului Sergios al Elamului in care arata o intamplare asemanatoare cu cea din Qurman : decoperirea intr-o pestera, langa Ierihon, de catre niste vanatori, a unor carti, printre care peste 200 de psalmi ai lui David, unele versete ale Bibliei si citate din Noul Testamnet.

Deci se pot trage doua concluzii din descoperirile facute. Una ar fi existenta unei „secte a pesterilor“ in regiune Marii Moarte, dovezi in acest sens intinzandu-se pe doua milenii, ea fiind atestata in timpul domniei imparatului Augustus (anul 31 i.Hr. - 14 d. Hr.) apoi descoperirea lui Origene din anul 217 a manuscriselor din pesterile de langa Ierihon, iar in anul 800 mitropolitul Timothes relateaza despre descoperirea unor manuscrise intr-o incapere sapata in stanca si in fine descoperirea tot in vase de lut a manuscriselor din pesterile din regiunea Qurman, nu departe de Ierihon, a celebrelor Manuscrise de la Marea Moarta.

Alta concluzie este legatura care ar exista intre comunitatea din Qumran si secta karaimilor. Aceasta ipoteza pare a fi confirmata de un manuscris din Qumran care este o versiune mai veche a unui manuscris al karaimilor gasit int-o sinagoga din Cairo. Exista asemanari evidente intre ideologiile comunitatii din Qumran si secta iudaica a karaimilor - care isi spuneau Fii Bibliei -, care a aparut in secolul al VIII-lea in Asia Mica, raspandindu-se apoi in Egipt, Spania, Crimeea, Caucaz, Lituania.

Numele de Qumran nu figureaza in Biblie si nici in vechea toponimie a Palestinei. Unii cercetatori sunt de parere ca acesta este traducerea araba a denumirii ebraice Gomora.

Cand au fost folosite prima oara pesterile din regiune nu se stie. Este sigur ca ele au fost abandonate in anul 70 in timpul rascoalei impotriva stapanirii romane. In Iordania pe o terasa de marmura de langa Marea Moarta s-au descoperit ruinele unei cladiri mari, cu multe incaperi, cu constructii anexe, cisterne, apeducte, precum si incaperi de copiat manuscrise. Numele arab al locului este Khirbet Qumran adica ruinele Qumran. S-au descoperit aici 1100 de amfore, in apropiere un cimitir cu 1000 de morminte, monede din perioada primilor procuratori ai lui Augustus si pana la izbucnirea rascoalei din anul 67. Se pune intrebarea cine erau locuitorii asezarii din regiunea Qumran. Probabil ca acestia nu locuiau tot timpul in pesteri ci numai in vremuri vitrege si tot acolo isi ascundeau si manuscrisele in vase de lut. La mica distanta de vechile cladiri s-a descoperit o pestera artificiala in care se aflau mii de fragmente de manuscrise in ebraica si aramaica, provenind de la 400 de carti, biblioteca a comunitatii din Qumran. Autenticitatea acestor texte nu pooate fi pusa la indoiala deoarece falsificarea lor ar fi imposibila iar testele cu carbon 14 au dovedit vechimea lor.

Cel mai important manuscris il constituie Statutul comunitatii (initial primise alt nume: Manual de disciplina). Fragmente ale aceluiasi text, mai mult sau mai putin ingrijite, au fost descopreite in mai multe pesteri ceea ce dovedeste ca reglementa viata comunitatii si ca era socotit deosebit de important daca la ivirea unei primejdii fiecare cauta sa-si puna la adapost propiul exemplar.

Statul vorbeste despre un intemeietor, obiect al veneratiei membrilor comunitatii, caruia i se spune „invatator al dreptatii“ sau „unicul Legiuitor“. Membrii comunitatii practicau unele ritualuri care se reintalnesc mai tarziu la crestini, precum botezul si masa sfanta. Cecetatorii au observat imediat asemanarea cu unele paragrafe din manuscrisul descoperit la Cairo denumit Documentul de la Damasc, document in care se vorbeste de asemenea despre „Invatatorul dreptatii“.

Polemicile, discutiile, interpretarile, studiul manuscriselor de la Marea Moarta au continuat ani si ani de-a randul.

Problema cea mai aprig discutata a fost legatura dintre comunitatea din Qumran (pe care unii o considera ca ar fi esenieni, altii doar o ramura a esenienilor ) si crestinismul primitiv. Aceasta deoarece exista o serie de analogii, asemanari dintre paracticile acestei comunitati si crestinismul primitiv. Asemanarile dintre „Invatatorul dreptatii “ care a murit pentru ideile sale cu cel putin 100 de ani inaintea lui Christos a suscitat dicutii care poate mai continua. Oricum manuscrisele de la Marea Moarta au declansat adevarate revolutii in studierea Bibliei si a Noului Testament.

Astfel descoperirea intamplatoare a pastorului nomad a dus la discutii patimase legate de controversatele probleme din istoria religiilor: problema originii si a izvoarelor crestinismului.

In cadrul acestor discutii la care participa filologi, paleografi, arheologi, teologi istorici, publicisti de cele mai diferite nuante, si pe masura descifrarii si studierii textelor, a acumularii de material faptic s-au conturat trei directii: cei care pledeaza in favoarea legaturii indisolubile intre manuscrisele de la Qumran si literatura Noului Testament, clericii si teologii ortodocsi care vad in interpretarea continutului manuscriselor o subminare a tezei fundamnetale a religiei crestine privind esenta divina a lui Christos si unicitatea „revelatiei “sale si a treia categorie adeptii asa numitei orientari „liberale“ sau „istorice“ care se situeaza intre celelalte doua. „ Crestinismul nu s-a nascut din vid “ este premisa de la care pornesc acestia din urma. Orientarea acestora este limpede: ideologia crestina nu este originala, cum nu sunt originale nici organizarea sociala si ritualurile comunitatii crestine primitive. Caracterul specific al crestinismului este dat de esenta divina a intemeietorului .

Informatiile furnizate de Manuscrisele de la Marea Moarta ilustreaza nu numai mediul istoric concret si atmosfera spirituala in care a luat nastere primele comunitati crestine, dar aduc si unele date noi cum ar fi cea a „Invatatorului dreptatii“ care nu este mentionat in vreun alt izvor cunoscut. De asemenea aceste manuscrise pun la dispozitia cercetatorilor izvoare autentice pentru studierea miscarilor social politice si ideologice din Siria si Palestina precum si despre Iudeea.

Diferite stiinte si discipline ( filologia, lingvistica, paleografia - grafica si tehnica scrisului, lexicul, sintaxa limbii vorbite in acea epoca, istoria si evolutiei alfabetului, istoria dreptului - practica juridica in Palestina, dreptul babilonian, dreptul egiptean, geografia si toponimia ) gasesc in textele manuscriselor de la Marea Moarta teren de cercetare.

Dintre cele 40 000 de fragmente de manuscrise descoperite in regiunea Marii Moarte s-a publicat destul de putin. Mare parte a manuscriselor se afla poate inca in curs de descifrare si editare si nu este exclus sa apara noi date despre primele comunitati crestine.

Manuscrisele de la Marea Moarta isi merita pe deplin aprecierea de cea mai importanta descoperire arheologica din perioada postbelica.

Scrierile conțin cea mai completă copie a cărții lui Isaia, texte de rugăciuni, interpretări biblice, fragmente de poezii, texte de înțelepciune, dar și o listă a tuturor locurilor funerare unde erau ascunse obiectele sacre și profane ce alcătuiau tezaurul Templului de la Ierusalim înainte de a fi distrus de către romani în anul 70 d.Hr.

Şase articole ale credinţei

Există şase credinţe elementare împărtăşite de toţi musulmanii:

1. Credinţa în Dumnezeu, singurul demn de veneraţie.
2. Credinţa în toţi profeţii şi trimişii lui Dumnezeu.
3. Credinţa în cărţile trimise de Dumnezeu.
4. Credinţa în îngeri.
5. Credinţa în Ziua Judecăţii (Al-din) şi în înviere (Al-Qiyama).
6. Credinţa în destin (Qadaa şi Qadar în arabă). (Aceasta nu inseamnă că un om este predeterminat în acţiuni sau să trăiască o anumită viaţă. Dumnezeu i-a dat liberul arbitru pentru a-i permite să ia decizii.)

Crezul musulman (traducere aproximativă):

"Cred în Dumnezeu; şi în Îngerii Săi; şi în Scripturile Sale; şi în trimişii Săi; şi în Ziua de Apoi; şi în Soartă, că Binele şi Raul sunt de la Dumnezeu, şi în Înviere după moarte. Mărturisesc că nu există nimic demn de veneraţie în afară de Dumnezeu; după cum mărturisesc că Muhammad este trimisul Său."

abdel Halim Hafez: Gabbar 2

Translation:

I knew him, as much as I knew him and I didn't know him.
And I saw him, as much as I saw him and never did I understand him.
He used to say I love you, yes he used to say.
And I from the pining of my heart believed him all the way.
I used to see, hear and feel his heart.
I was living not for my sake but for his, for his.
And I didn't know before today
That these eyes knew how to betray in this way
And I didn't believe before today
That compassion could be this way
Ruthless, ruthless

The one who taught me love I wish, I just wish you weren't the one who taught me and wish I never saw it.
Why did you deceive me, why did you make me
make me forget the world and live in its sweetness?
There wasn't any two like us that saw what we saw in our love. The dream we were dreaming and supposed to complete together.
Why? Why? Why did you awake me in the middle of heaven with fire and tears?
Why didn't you have mercy on me and leave me living deceived? Living deceived.

And I didn't know before today
That these eyes knew how to betray in this way
And I didn't believe before today
That compassion could be this way
Ruthless, ruthless...

DREPTURILE FEMEILOR IN ISLAM

Allah a creat fiecare fiinta In perechi - mascul si femela (51:49). Inclusiv omenirea. Allah i-a onorat pe copiii lui Adam - atat mascul cat si femela. (17:70) Barbatii si femeile care cred, sunt unul protectorul celuilalt. (9:71) Allah Ii va rasplati atat pe barbati cat si pe femei In viata de dupa moarte. (3:1 95)

In Islam, femeia are o identitate distincta si separata. Islamul le-a dat femeilor dreptul la proprietatea personala. Ea este proprietara propriilor bunuri. Nimeni (tata, sot sau frate) nu are vreun drept asupra lor asa cum doreste, In limitele Halal (legal) si ale Haram (nelegal).

Islamul i-a dat dreptul la mostenire. Ea are o parte din proprietatea tatalui, sotului sau fratelui fara copii (9:7, 32, 176), In cazul In care acestia mor.

Ea are dreptul de a-si alege sotul. Nimeni nu-i poate opune o decizie peste vointa ei. Ea are dreptul de a cere separarea (Khula) de sotul ei daca mariajul lor devine imposibil de suportat. Daca un barbat se Indoieste fals de castitatea unei femei acel barbat e declarat incapabil de a demonstra aceasta. (24:4) Aceasta arata cum e pazita onoarea unei femei de false acuzatii.

Coranul le cere musulmanilor sa le trateze cu blandete pe femei. (4:19) Tot acesta Ii face pe sotii musulmani raspunzatori de Intretinerea sotiei lor. Femeilor, li se cere sa ramana ascultatoare si caste. (4:34)

O femeie are dreptul de a-si dezvolta talentele si de a lucra In limitele Islamului. Islamul permite unei femei maritate non-musulmane sa-si pastreze propria religie, iar sotul nu se poate amesteca In aceasta libertate. Acest lucru este aplicabil femeilor crestine si evreice casatorite cu soti musulmani.

Evangheliile gnostice – o alta perspectiva asupra religiei

Termenul de evanghelii gnostice se refera la o colectie de scrieri privitoare la invatamintele lui Isus, scrise in majoritate in secolul al II-lea al erei noastre. Desi nu se incadreaza in canoanele bisericesti, acestea au starnit de-a lungul timpului interesul oamenilor de stiinta, cei care au adoptat si adaptat aceste invataturi neoficiale vietii lor cotidiene, de multe ori in detrimentul celor canonice. Andrew Bernhard subliniaza intr-una din cartile sale despre evangheliile non-canonice faptul ca acestea contin invataturile lui Isus, repovestirea lor sau episoade din viata acestuia.

Termenul de evanghelii gnostice se refera la o colectie de scrieri privitoare la invatamintele lui Isus, scrise in majoritate in secolul al II-lea al erei noastre. Desi nu se incadreaza in canoanele bisericesti, acestea au starnit de-a lungul timpului interesul oamenilor de stiinta, cei care au adoptat si adaptat aceste invataturi neoficiale vietii lor cotidiene, de multe ori in detrimentul celor canonice. Andrew Bernhard subliniaza intr-una din cartile sale despre evangheliile non-canonice faptul ca acestea contin invataturile lui Isus, repovestirea lor sau episoade din viata acestuia.

Evangheliile “cunoasterii”

Repudiate de o mare parte a crestinilor si negasindu-si locul in randul scriiturilor bisericesti oficiale, invataturile gnostice au fost incadrate ca fiind scrieri aprocrife ale Noului Testament. Succesul de care se bucura acestea in ultimii ani se datoreaza unor controverse religioase, pornite in majoritate de la romanul lui Dan Brown, Codul lui Da Vinci . Popularitatea neasteptata pe care romanul a avut-o, si mai ales, controversele aprige care s-au nascut in urma publicarii lui, au trezit interesul publicului pentru acest domeniu. Romanului i-au urmat o serie de documentare si chiar filme de fictiune, menite sa pastreze viu interesul pasionatilor de acest subiect. Brusc, evangheliile gnostice au intrat in atentia publicului larg, facandu-si o intrare demna de interes pe scena vietii religioase.

Numele acestor evanghelii au fost inspirate din termenul grecesc “gnosis”, care inseamna “cunoastere”, si care a dat numele unui curent aparut in filozofie in timpurile pre-crestine. In tot acest timp, idei proprii gnosticismului grecesc s-au impletit cu cele ale crestinismului timpuriu. Prin urmare, termenul de “gnosticism crestin” a ajuns sa reprezinte o comunitate crestina timpurie, care credea ca salvarea sufletului inseamna renuntarea la lumea materiala prin intermediul revelatiei. Conform acestora, raspunsurile la intrebarile de natura spirituala ar trebui cautate inauntrul fiintei, nu in exteriorul ei.

Evangheliile gnostice cuprind un numar mare de invataturi, care dateaza din perioade diferite si care au fost identificate in mai multe locatii. Descoperirea lor succesiva a oferit de fiecare data noi informatii si a facut posibila aparitia unor noi perspective asupra religiei dar au fost, in acelasi timp, si motiv de dezbateri in randul teologilor, cercetatorilor si istoricilor. Majoritatea acestor documente au fost gasite accidental, unele dintre ele fiind conservate aproape in totalitate, altele fiind recuperate doar partial sau fragmentar. Anumite manuscrise au fost multiplicate, iar in prezent ne-au parvenit numai copiile, cum este si cazul Evangheliei dupa Maria. Manuscrisele de la Nag Hammadi au fost descoperite de catre doi fermieri, in decembrie 1945, si au fost numite dupa zona in care au fost adapostite timp de secole, in vreme ce alte evanghelii gnostice au fost gasite in perioade si locatii diferite.

Evanghelia dupa Maria

Evanghelia dupa Maria a fost recuperata ca parte a Codexului Akhmim si a vazut lumina tiparului pentru prima data in 1955. Aceasta a fost descoperita in anul 1896, intr-un codex de papirus, fiind incadrata in categoria cartilor apocrife. Desi termenul utilizat pentru a descrie acest manuscris este “evanghelie”, documentul nu reprezinta o evanghelie in sensul scolastic al cuvantului.

Akhmim Codex sau Papyrus Berolinesis 8502 pentru cercetatori, continea in momentul descoperirii sale inca trei texte apocrife. Toate cele patru documente erau redactate in limba copta. Ulterior, inca doua fragmente ale Evangheliei dupa Maria au mai fost descoperite, insa amandoua erau transcrise in limba greaca.
Dezbaterile asupra perioadei in care au fost scrise sau asupra limbii in care au fost redactate in original nu au intarziat sa apara. Teologul feminist Karen King este de parere ca evanghelia originala a fost scrisa undeva in a doua jumatate a celui de-al doilea secol. In acelasi timp, o alta cercetatoare, Esther De Boer, crede ca aceasta a fost scrisa mult mai devreme. Cele doua fragmente in limba greaca, datand din secolul III, au fost publicate in 1938 si 1983, iar cel scris in copta a fost tradus si publicat pentru prima data in 1955.

Insa cea mai mare controversa legata de aceasta evanghelie pierduta si gasita incepe chiar din titlu. Cercetatorii si istoricii au fost de acord, in general, ca este vorba despre o scriere apocrifa, insa au intampinat dificultati in a se pune de acord asupra persoanei la care se referea textul. Care Maria? Argumentele in favoarea Mariei Magdalena sunt numeroase, tinand cont de faptul ca statutul ei de discipol al lui Isus era recunoscut si de faptul ca ea a fost primul martor al Reinvierii. De asemenea, numele ei este pomenit in numeroase scrieri crestine timpurii. Se pare ca aceasta il acompania pe Isus in calatorii, iar Evanghelia dupa Matei o mentioneaza ca fiind unul dintre martorii crucificarii lui Isus. In Evanghelia dupa Ioan, Maria este primul martor al Invierii lui Isus.

In cuprinsul acestei scrieri, exista un episod in care Maria ia cuvantul in fata discipolilor, iar Petru o contrazice vehement pe motiv ca este femeie. Acelasi episod este mentionat in Evanghelia dupa Ioan si intr-un alt text apocrif, Pistis Sophia. In acest text, Maria este identificata fara niciun dubiu ca fiind Maria Magdalena. Chiar si scena finala din Evanghelia dupa Maria vine in sustinerea acestei teorii. Unul dintre apostoli sare in apararea femeii, spunandu-i lui Petru: “Sigur ca invatatorul o cunoaste mai bine. De aceea o iubeste pe ea mai mult decat pe noi.” Afirmatia apostolului este mentionata si in Evanghelia dupa Filip.Petru este ofensat de faptul ca Invatatorul a optat sa vorbeasca in secret cu o femeie despre viziuni, in loc sa faca acest lucru liber, in prezenta tuturor discipolilor. Acesta nu intelege de ce Isus o prefera pe Maria pentru a Ii interpreta invataturile, in locul altui discipol.

Alti istorici sunt de parere ca este vorba despre Fecioara Maria, ceea ce ar putea explica la fel de bine de ce Isus o iubea pe ea mai mult decat pe ceilalti discipoli. Cateva pasaje intalnite in evanghelii o indica tot pe Fecioara ca fiind discipolul aflat in competitie cu Petru. Neintelegerile privitoare la continutul acestei evanghelii au fost exacerbate intrucatva si de faptul ca manuscrisului ii lipsesc sase pagini la inceput si inca patru la mijloc, ceea ce inseamna ca scenele de inceput sunt invaluite in mister, lasand loc multor prezumtii in ceea ce priveste locurile si circumstantele acestui dialog, care are loc initial intre Isus si apostoli si, ulterior, intre Maria si apostoli.

Evanghelia dupa Iuda

In anii ‘70 , un papirus scris in limba copta a fost descoperit in apropierea localitatii Beni Masah, in Egipt. Datarea cu carbon il plaseaza in secolul II al erei noastre, iar majoritatea istoricilor ii recunosc vechimea, insa nu si autenticitatea scrierii. Desi evangheliile canonice au fost scrise de cei ale caror nume le poarta, ultimul text intrat in randul scrierilor gnostice nu a fost scris de Iuda, ci mai degraba de adeptii gnostici ai lui Isus. Descoperit in urma cu 30 de ani, manuscrisul a incaput in mana expertilor abia in anul 2005, intr-o stare mai mult decat deplorabila. Expertii au depus o munca titanica pentru a evita distrugerea a ceea ce a mai ramas din text. Conform cercetatorilor, manuscrisul original continea 31 de pagini scrise pe ambele parti. Cand a aparut pentru prima data pe piata, in 1999, acesta mai avea doar 13 pagini scrise pe ambele parti. S-a speculat ca paginile lipsa au fost indepartate deliberat, pentru a fi vandute pe piata neagra. Existenta unei Evanghelii a lui Iuda este mentionata in jurul anului 180 d.Hr. de catre episcopul Irineu din Lyon, care o include in randul textelor apocrife, negandu-i insa veridicitatea in cartea sa, “Despre erezii”.Prima traducere a fost efectuata in 2006 de catre National Geographic Society, care a creat ulterior si un documentar amplu pe aceasta tema.

In privinta episodului tradarii lui Isus, evangheliile canonice se afla in consens: Iuda este cel care l-a tradat pe Isus, predandu-L soldatilor romani contra unor arginti. Insa proaspat descoperita evanghelie vine sa aduca o noua perspectiva asupra acestui episod. Documentul descrie intreg episodul tradarii si mortii lui Isus, din perspectiva lui Iuda. Texul este o povestire gnostica a unui aranjament intre Iuda si Isus, in care primul trebuie sa-si vanda Invatatorul romanilor pentru ca sarcina Acestuia pe Pamant sa fie incheiata. In aceasta noua perspectiva, Iuda este reabilitat. El nu a facut decat sa asculte instructiunile Invatatorului, iar rolurile sunt inversate. Cel care era considerat pana acum tradator s-a dovedit a fi, de fapt, unealta vointei divine, si in acelasi timp, cel mai de incredere apostol al lui Isus. Fiul Domnului este cel care isi regizeaza aceasta iesire de pe scena istoriei, iar Iuda este catalizatorul. Insa nu numai ideea tradatorului care este, de fapt, apostolul ales, a iritat reprezentantii lumii crestine, ci si faptul ca se sugereaza ca Isus si-a orchestrat singur tradarea pentru a evada din propriul corp, din cauza ca se simtea captiv, nu pentru a mantui omenirea. O alta versiune asupra a doua evenimente de baza ale culturii crestine face ca acest nou aparut text sa fie vazut ca apartinand unor curente gnostice, conform carora corpul uman este o forma de inchisoare a spiritului, iar Iuda este cel care a ajutat spiritul lui Isus sa scape de aceste constrangeri fizice.

Tot aici, se incearca oarecum discreditarea evangheliilor canonice, prin mentionarea faptului ca toti ceilalti discipoli nu cunosteau nimic din toate acestea, Iuda Iscariotul fiind singur ales de catre Invatator pentru a lua parte la Marele Plan. De-a lungul timpului, mai multi filozofi au speculat faptul ca Iuda a actionat la cererea lui Isus, astfel incat Acesta sa Isi implineasca menirea pe Pamant. Pentru prima data insa, un text scris si datat in vechime, vine sa sustina aceste teorii. Isus il avertizeaza pe Iuda asupra sarcinii grele pe care a fost desemnat sa o indeplineasca, avertizandu-l ca numele sau va fi blestemat pentru multe generatii de acum incolo, insa va veni o vreme in care acesta va stapani peste toti. Intr-un alt pasaj al manuscrisului, Isus Il indeamna pe Iuda sa se indeparteze de ceilalti discipoli, pentru a-I impartasi misterele regatului Sau.

Spre deosbire de textele canonice, care nareaza fapte din ultimul an de viata a lui Isus (in Evanghelia dupa Ioan sunt ultimii trei ani) si despre nasterea Acestuia (in evangheliile dupa Luca si dupa Matei), Evanghelia dupa Iuda este scrisa sub forma unui dialog intre Invatator, Iuda si apostoli, fara a se incadra in contextul filozofic retoric. Acest gen era extrem de popular la inceputul crestinismului, in vreme ce singurele evanghelii scrise sub forma narativa sunt cele canonice. Ca si in scrierile canonice, in Evanghelia dupa Iuda se povesteste episodul in care Isus este arestat de catre soldatii romani, iar Iuda primeste de la acestia argintii. Insa, spre deosebire de primele, in acest text se insista pe rolul important pe care apostolul l-a jucat in implinirea menirii pe Pamant a Fiului Domnului. O alta diferenta semnificativa este data de faptul ca in Noul Testament, Iuda, macinat de remuscari, se spanzura de un copac, insa in evanghelie nu se specifica soarta pe care a avut-o acesta dupa arestarea lui Isus, desi este consemnata o viziune pe care Iuda o impartaseste Invatatorului, in care acesta vazuse cum ceilalti 11 apostoli il vor ucide aruncand cu pietre in el.

Maria, discipolul preferat al lui Isus, Petru, una dintre figurile cheie ale religiei crestine, un discipol invidios, Iuda tradatorul care nu era tradator, ci de fapt, un erou nedreptatit al carui sacrificiu nu a fost recunoscut nici astazi, toate aceste fapte continute in evangheliile gnostice au aruncat o umbra asupra textelor biblice canonice. Cat adevar si cata fantezie contin acestea? Interesul pe care l-au ridicat este inca de data recenta, studiile asupra lor sunt inca la inceput, iar cercetatorii si istoricii s-au blocat in teorii si pareri partinitoare. Tocmai din cauza faptului ca aceste texte innegrite de timp incearca sa rescrie insasi baza istoriei crestine, interpretarea si mai ales autentificarea lor nu pot fi decat controversate, transformandu-le in unul dintre cele mai mari si vechi mistere ale lumii.

sapunul

Primul sapun a fost "inventat" de arabi.
Sapunul de Alep este 100%. Folosit pentru ingrijirea fetei, corpului, barbierit si chiar pentru bebelusi, el ajuta in cazul anumitor probleme ale pielii, precum acnee, psoriazis, eczema. Este un sapun cu utilizari multiple.
Sapunul de Alep este fabricat inca din antichitate. Nu contine coloranti, parfumuri de sinteza si este compus din ulei de masline, ulei din fructe de dafin, apa si soda, indispensabila in procesul de saponificare. Taiat de mana, forma sa este deseori neregulata. II trebuie aproximnativ 9-10 luni ca sa se usuce la aer. Culoarea sa devine bruna, in timp ce in interior ramane verde.
Sapunul de Alep se foloseste pentru ingrijirea corpului, parului si fetei: proprietatile sale calmante, antiseptice si antiparazitare, datorita acidului lauric din fructele de dafin, ii permite sa lupte impotriva acneei si a punctelor negre. Este foarte bun impotriva psoriazisului, micozelor, eczemelor si matretii.

De altfel, sapunul de Alep nu este agresiv pentru piele: uleiul de masline este hidratant si protector. De aceea este foarte bun pentru ingrijirea pielii uscate si a bebelusilor. Poate fi folosit pentru barbierit, caci hidrateaza foarte bine pielea. Mai bine decat spumantele clasice.

In plus este eficient impotriva insectelor pe care le alunga.

Golan Heights, Syria

1967: Six-Day War, Israel occupies the Golan Heights

After the Six-Day War broke out in June 1967, Syria's shelling greatly intensified and the Israeli army captured the Golan Heights on 9–10 June. The area which came under Israeli control as a result of the war is two geologically distinct areas: the Golan Heights proper (413 sq mi; 1,070 km²) and the slopes of the Mt. Hermon range (39 sq mi; 100 km²). The new border between the two forces was named the Purple Line.

During the war, between 80,000 and 131,000 Arab Druze and Circassians fled or were driven from the heights and around 7,000 remained in the Israeli-occupied territory. Israel has not allowed former residents to return, citing security reasons.Israeli settlement in the Golan began soon after the war. Merom Golan was founded in July 1967 and by 1970 there were 12 settlements. Israeli sources and the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported that much of the local population of 100,000 fled as a result of the war, whereas the Syrian government stated that a large proportion of it was expelled.

In the 1970s, Israeli politician Yigal Allon proposed as part of the Allon Plan that a Druze state be established in Syria's Quneitra Governorate, including the Israeli-held Golan Heights. Allon died in 1980 and his plan never materialised.

During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Syrian forces overran much of the southern Golan, before being pushed back by an Israeli counterattack. Israel and Syria signed a ceasefire agreement in 1974 that left almost all the Heights in Israeli hands. East of the 1974 ceasefire line lies the Syrian controlled part of the Heights, an area that was not captured by Israel (500 km²) or withdrawn from (100 km²). This area forms 30% of the Golan Heights.Today it contains more than 40 Syrian towns and villages. In 1975, following the 1974 ceasefire agreement, Israel returned a narrow demilitarized zone to Syrian control. Some of the displaced residents began returning to their homes located in this strip and the Syrian government began helping people rebuild their villages, except for Quneitra. In the mid-1980s the Syrian government launched a plan called "The Project for the Reconstruction of the Liberated Villages". (By the end of 2007, Syria had settled the region with an estimated population of 79,000.)

The Golan Heights had been under military administration since 1967. In 1981, Israel passed the Golan Heights Law, which applied Israeli "laws, jurisdiction and administration" to the Golan Heights. Although the law in effect annexed the territory to Israel, it was not formally annexed. The area was administered as part of Israel’s North District. Although under Israeli civilian law and having the option of Israeli citizenship available, most non-Jewish Druze residents of the Golan Heights, refused to surrender their Syrian citizenship.

Israel's action was not recognised internationally and United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 which declared the Golan Heights an Israeli occupied territory continues to apply. Israel maintains that it may retain the area as the text of Resolution 242 calls for "safe and recognised boundaries free from threats or acts of force".
Syria continued to demand a full Israeli withdrawal to the June 4, 1967 borders, including a strip of land on the east shore of the Sea of Galilee that Syria captured during the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War and occupied from 1949–67. Successive Israeli governments have considered an Israeli withdrawal from the Golan in return for normalization of relations with Syria, provided certain security concerns are met. Prior to 2000, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad rejected normalization with Israel.

During United States–brokered negotiations in 1999–2000, Israel and Syria discussed a peace deal that would include Israeli withdrawal in return for a comprehensive peace structure, recognition and full normalization of relations. The disagreement in the final stages of the talks was on access to the Sea of Galilee. Israel offered to withdraw to the pre-1948 border (the 1923 Paulet-Newcombe line), while Syria insisted on the 1967 frontier. The former line has never been recognized by Syria, claiming it was imposed by the colonial powers, while the latter was rejected by Israel as the result of Syrian aggression. The difference between the lines is less than 100 m for the most part, but the 1967 line would give Syria access to the Sea of Galilee, and Israel wished retain control of the Sea of Galilee, its only freshwater lake and a major water resource.

In late 2003, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad said he was ready to revive peace talks with Israel. Israel demanded Syria first disarm Hezbollah, which launched many attacks on northern Israeli towns and army posts from Lebanese territory, and cease to host militant Palestinian groups and their headquarters. Talks were not initiated.

After the 2006 war between Israel and Syrian–Iranian-backed Hezbollah guerrillas, the issue of the Golan Heights arose again. Israel heightened its alert over a possible war with Syria after Israeli intelligence assessed that Syria was "seriously examining" military action. Syria reinforced its forces on the Golan while remaining in a defensive position.President Assad stated that Syria was prepared to hold peace talks with Israel but said that if hopes for peace dissolve then "war may really be the only solution". Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert dismissed calls within his coalition to consider peace talks and proclaimed that "the Golan Heights will remain in our hands forever".Others, including cabinet minister Shimon Peres and Ehud Olmert's spokesman Assaf Shariv doubted Assad's sincerity and suggested that Assad's statements were a bid at deflecting international criticism of his regime and specifically explaining that the alleged approach by Assad "is coming in the weeks before the decision on Rafik Hariri", referring to the international inquiry on the murder of the former Lebanese prime minister.
In June 2007, it was reported that Prime Minister Ehud Olmert had sent a secret message to Syrian President, Bashar Assad saying that Israel would concede the land in exchange for a comprehensive peace agreement and the severing of Syria's ties with Iran and militant groups in the region.On the same day, former Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the former Syrian President, Hafez Assad, had promised to let Israel retain Mount Hermon in any future agreement.

In April 2008, Syrian media reported Turkey's Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan told President Bashar al-Assad that Israel would withdraw from the Golan Heights in return for peace. Israeli leaders of communities in the Golan Heights held a special meeting and stated: "all construction and development projects in the Golan are going ahead as planned, propelled by the certainty that any attempt to harm Israeli sovereignty in the Golan will cause severe damage to state security and thus is doomed to fail".The same year, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 171-1 in favour of a motion on the Golan Heights that reaffirmed Security Council resolution 497 and called on Israel to desist from "changing the physical character, demographic composition, institutional structure and legal status of the occupied Syrian Golan and, in particular, to desist from the establishment of settlements [and] from imposing Israeli citizenship and Israeli identity cards on the Syrian citizens in the occupied Syrian Golan and from its repressive measures against the population of the occupied Syrian Golan." Israel was the only nation to vote against the resolution.

In May 2009, Prime Minister Netanyahu said that Israel would never give up the Golan and would keep the heights forever. He believed returning the Golan Heights would turn it into "Iran's front lines which will threaten the whole state of Israel." He said: "I remember the Golan Heights without Katzrin, and suddenly we see a thriving city in the Land of Israel, which having been a gem of the Second Temple era has been revived anew."American diplomat Martin Indyk indicated that the 1999-2000 round of negotiations began through backchannels during Netanyahu's first term (1996–1999), and that Netanyahu's position was not as hardline as he made out. In 2010, warning Syria against drawing Israel into war, Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman said that Syria should abandon its "dreams" of recovering the Israeli-held Golan Heights.

Damascus, Syria

The Beginning
Its first appearance in history, is as a city conquered in the 15th century BC by the Pharaoh Thutmosis III. According to the Old Testament, it was once the capital of the Aramean Kingdom in the 11th Century BC. In the 10th Century BC, it started being attacked and it was in battle with several other kingdoms including the Hebrews and Assyrians. Finally, in 732 BC, it was taken over by Tiglath Pileser II ordered by the King of Judea, Achaz. Some years after the fall of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, the Kingdom of Damascus was destroyed by Babylon.
The Greeks
Damascus was conquered in 333 BC by Parmenion, one of Alexander's lieutenants, who took it from the Persians. It later fell to the Seleucids who fell into dispute with a branch of the empire of the Macedonian conqueror, the Lagides, who ruled Egypt. In 66 BC it was occupied by Pompey and belonged to the province of Syria.

St. Paul
It was on the way to Damascus, that St. Paul, who was sent to put down the Christians, had the revelation of faith. He was directed by Jesus (in the vision of light) to the house of Judas. There he met Ananias and together they preached for Christ.

Byzantium and the Persians
Under the Byzantine Empire, .Damascus was an important base for watching over the Syrian Desert, But it was fatally looted by the Sassanid Persians. Damascus was later besieged by the Muslim faith fighters in 635, and was retaken by Khaled Ibn al Waleed in 636. This meant a radical change of civilization for this city as it swung from Byzantium and Christianity to the Orient and the Semitic world.

Arab Dynasties
Damascus's most glorious time was in the first decades of Islam, when it became the capital of an empire spreading from the Atlantic coast to central Asia, the Umayyad Empire. This golden age ended with the Abbassids who moved the Capital to Baghdad. From then on, it fell under the power of various Muslim sects and sovereigns, the most important of which was the Egyptian Fatimids. It later went through another rich period, when Saladin took it from the Fatimids and started the Ayyubid Dynasty. At the time it was battling against the Franks (the Crusaders). Numerous monuments built by Nur al Din and Saladin are still the pride of Damascus.

Mamelukes and Ottomans

In 1260 it was taken over by the Mamelukes of Egypt who pushed the Mongols back. In 1516, the Ottomans from Turkey (Anatolia), took over from the Mamelukes and kept control until World War I. After World War I, a very exhausted Damascus was liberated in 1918, by an Arab contingent under the command of the British Army of General Allenby. The Syrian National Congress was formed in 1919 under the patronage of Emir Faisal who came from Hedjaz. He was named King of Syria in 1920, and one month later was taken over by the French in the name of the League of Nations.

Independence
After resistance and a few uprisings, Syria was proclaimed Independent by the French general, Catroux, on September 16th 1941. This however was not taken into effect until 1946 and since then has been considerably developed and industrialized while its political role was strengthened thanks to an increased centralization.

2 syria my country 2 سوريا بلدي

Syria (pronounced /ˈsɪriə/ SEER-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية‎ sūriyya or سوريا sūryā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.

The name Syria formerly comprised the entire region of the Levant, while the modern state encompasses the site of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire. Damascus is widely regarded as one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.

Modern Syria was created as a French mandate and attained independence in April 1946, as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was rocky, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949-1970. Syria has been under Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered non-democratic.

The country has been governed by the Baath Party since 1963, although actual power is concentrated to the presidency and a narrow grouping of military and political strongmen. Syria's current president is Bashar al-Assad, who won a referendum on extending his presidency for second term, garnering 97.62 percent of votes in 2007 and is the son of Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000. Syria has played a major regional role, particularly through its central role in the Arab conflict with Israel, which since 1967 has occupied the Golan Heights, and by active involvement in Lebanese and Palestinian affairs.

The population is mainly Sunni Muslim, with a large Shia and Alawite population, and significant non-Muslim Christian and Druze minorities. Since the 1960s, Alawite military officers have tended to dominate the country's politics. Ethnically, some 80% of the population is Arab, and the state is ruled by the Baath Party according to Arab nationalist principles, while approximately 20% belong to the Kurdish, Armenian, Assyrian, Turkmen, and Circassians minorities.


The name Syria derives from ancient Greek name for Syrians, Σύριοι Syrioi, which the Greeks applied without distinction to the Assyrians. A number of modern scholars argue that the Greek word is traced back to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian ������ Aššur.[9] While others believe that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon.

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.

By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern day Israel and Jordan) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Mesopotamia.


Around the excavated city of Ebla near Idlib city in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest. Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages, designated as Paleo-Canaanite.
However, more recent classifications of the Eblaite language has shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language. The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; the city was restored, as the nation of the Amorites, a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the Hittites

During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the Sea Peoples. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Palestine, as well as in the west (Lebanon), which was already known for its towering cedars. Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh.[13]

Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians after Alexander the Great's conquests and the Seleucid Empire. The capital of this Empire (founded in 312BC) was situated at Antioch, modern day Antakya just inside the Turkish border. But the Seleucid Empire was essentially just one long slow period of decline, and Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines.

In the Roman Empire period, the city of Antioch was the third largest city in the empire after Rome and Alexandria. With estimated population of 500,000 at its peak, Antioch was one of the major centres of trade and industry in the ancient world. The population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (A.D.)

The Roman Emperor Alexander Severus, who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin Elagabalus, who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal at Emesa (modern Homs) in Syria. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Marcus Julius Philippus, emperor from 244 to 249.

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saul of Tarsus was converted on the Road to Damascus, thereafter being known as the Apostle Paul, and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.


By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Rashidun army led by Khaled ibn al-Walid, resulting in the area becoming part of the Islamic empire. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. Syria was divided into four districts: Damascus, Hims, Palestine and Jordan. The Islamic empire stretched from Spain and Morocco to India and parts of Central Asia, thus Syria prospered economically, being the capital of the empire. Early Ummayad rulers such as Abd al-Malik and al-Walid constructed several splendid palaces and mosques throughout Syria, particularly in Damascus, Aleppo and Hims.

There was great toleration of Christians in this era and several held governmental posts. The country's power dramatically declined during later Ummayad rule; mainly due to the totalitarianism and corruption spread among the empire's leaderships, conflict between its general staff, and the successive revolutions by the oppressed and miserable groups. As one Ummayad chieftain responded to a question about the reasons of the decline of their empire: "Rather visiting what needed to be visited, we were more interested in the pleasure and enjoyment of life; we oppressed our people until they gave up and sought relief from us, [...] we trusted our ministers who favoured their own interests and kept secrets from us, and we unhurriedly rewarded our soldiers that we lost their obedience to our enemies."

Ummayad dynasty was then overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in 750, who moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic — made official under Ummayad rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era. In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Daula.

Sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish overlords during the Crusades of the 12th century, and were known as the Crusader state of the Principality of Antioch. The area was also threatened by Shi'a extremists known as Assassins (Hashshashin). In 1260, the Mongols arrived, led by Hulegu with an army 100,000 strong, destroying cities and irrigation works. Aleppo fell in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu needed to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute.

The command of the remaining Mongol troops was placed under Kitbugha, a Christian Mongol. A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt, and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ayn Jalut, in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baybars, made his capitals in Cairo and Damascus, linked by a mail service that traveled by both horses and carrier pigeons. When Baybars died, his successor was overthrown, and power was taken by a Turk named Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria.

Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols, and in 1281, they arrived with an army of 50,000 Mongols, and 30,000 Armenian, Georgian, and Turkish auxiliaries, along with Al-Ashqar's rebel force. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took the city, but Qalawun arrived with a Mamluk force, persuaded Al-Ashqar to switch sides and join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle of Homs, a close battle which resulted in the death of the majority of the combatants, but was finally won by the Mamluks.

In 1400, Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane, invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. It was during the conquests of Timur that the indigenous Christian population of Syria began to suffer under greater persecutions.

By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria. Shattered by the Mongols, Syria was easily absorbed into the Ottoman Empire from the 16th through 20th centuries, and found itself largely apart from, and ignored by, world affairs. see also Ottoman Syria.


Because the Ottoman Empire fought on the side of Germany during World War I, plans by the Entente powers to dissolve this great Ottoman territory could now begin. Two allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed, long before the end of the war, how to split the Ottoman Empire into several zones of influence.

The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 set the fate of modern Southwest Asia for the coming century; providing France with the northern zone (Syria, with later the upcoming Lebanon), and the United Kingdom with the southern one (Iraq and later, after renegotiations in 1917, Palestine (then still including Jordan) - 'to secure daily transportation of troops from Haifa to Baghdad' - agreement n° 7).

The two territories were only separated with a straight border line from Jordan to Iran. But early discoveries of oil in the region of Mosul just before to end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to 'Zone B', or the British zone of influence. The borders between the 'Zone A' and 'Zone B' have not changed from 1918 to this date. Since 1920, the two sides have been recognized internationally under mandate of the League of Nations by the two dominant countries; France and the United Kingdom.

In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family, who later became the King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate.

In 1925 Sultan Pasha al-Atrash led a revolt which broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. This is considered one of the most important revolutions against the French mandate, as it encompassed the whole of Syria and witnessed fierce battles between rebel and French forces. On August 23, 1925 Sultan Pasha al-Atrash officially declared revolution against France, and soon fighting erupted in Damascus, Homs and Hama. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French at the beginning of revolution, notably the Battle of Al-Kabir on July 21, 1925, the Battle of Al-Mazra'a on August 2, 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, Almsifarh and Suwayda.

After rebel victories against the French, France sent thousands of troops to Syria and Lebanon from Morocco and Senegal, equipped with modern weapons, compared to the few supplies of the rebels. This dramatically altered the results and allowed the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian French Treaty. He was met with a huge public reception.

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it wasn't until 1 January 1944 that it was recognised as an independent republic. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War, aligning with the other local Arab nations who were attempting to prevent the establishment of Israel. The Syrian army was pressed out of most of the Palestine area, but fortified their strongholds on the Golan Heights and managed to keep their old borders and some additional territory (this was converted into "supposed" demilitarized zones under UN supervision ; the status of these territories have proved a stumbling-block for Syrian-Israeli negotiations).

The humiliating defeat suffered by the army was one of several trigger factors for Col. Husni al-Za'im's seizure of power in 1949, in what has been described as the first military overthrow of the Arab world. since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was then himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.

After exercising influence behind the scenes for some time, dominating the ravaged parliamentary scene, Shishakli launched a second overthrow in 1951, entrenching his rule and eventually abolishing multipartyism altogether. Only when president Shishakli was himself overthrown in a 1954 overthow, was the parliamentary system restored, but it was fundamentally undermined by continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military.

By this time, civilian politics had been largely gutted of meaning, and power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment, which had now proven itself to be the only force capable of seizing and - perhaps - keeping power. Parliamentary institutions remained weak and ineffectual, dominated by competing parties representing the landowning elites and various Sunni urban notables, while economy and politics were mismanaged, and little done to better the role of Syria's peasant majority. This, as well as the influence of Nasserism and other anti-colonial ideologies, created fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist and socialist movements, who represented disaffected elements of society, notably including the religious minorities, and demanded radical reform.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the Baghdad Pact. In early 1957 Iraq advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of Jordan.

In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. With this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake Iskenderun, a matter of dispute between Syria and Turkey. On the other hand, Syria and the U.S.S.R. accused Turkey of massing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military. Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member) lessened the threat of war.


Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 overthow, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt.On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities.

The union was not a success, however.Following a military overthrow led by Abd al-Karim al-Nahlawi on 28 September 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with various overthorws culminating on 8 March 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Baath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Baath members.

The Baath takeover in Syria followed a Baath overthrow in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Baath-controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in Cairo on 17 April 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Baath government in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans floundered in November 1963, when the Baath government in Iraq was overthrown.

In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labour, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. On 23 February 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party overthrow, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Baath government on 1 March. The leaders of the overthrow described it as a "rectification" of Baath Party principles.

When Nasser closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Eilat-bound ships, the Baath government supported the Egyptian leader and amassed troops in the strategic Golan Heights to defend itself against Israeli shellings into Syria.

The New York Times reported in 1997 that "Moshe Dayan, the celebrated commander who, a Defense Minister in 1967, gave the order to conquer the Golan…[said] many of the firefights with the Syrians were deliberately provoked by Israel, and the kibbutz residents who pressed the government to take the Golan Heights did so less for security than for their farmland."

After Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the June 1967 war, Syria joined the battle against Israel as well. In the final days of the war, after having captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, as well as the West Bank and eastern Jerusalem from Jordan, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing the entire Golan Heights in under 48 hours.

Conflict developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the Baath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Baath leadership. By 13 November 1970, Minister of Defense Hafez al-Assad was solidly established as the strongman of the government, when he effected a bloodless military overthrow ("The Corrective Movement")

Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad.


In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.

On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt began the Yom Kippur War by staging a surprise attack against Israeli forces returning the Syrian Golan Heights and the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula. After early successes, the Israeli military reversed the initial Syrian gains, pushing the Syrian army out of the Golan and invaded into Syrian territory beyond the 1967 border. As a result, Israel continued to occupy the Golan Heights as part of the Israeli-occupied territories.

n early 1976, the Lebanese civil war was going poorly for the Maronite Christians. Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun, but soon became embroiled in the Lebanese Civil War, beginning the 30 year Syrian occupation of Lebanon. Many crimes in Lebanon were associated to the Syrians' forces and intelligences (among others, the assassinations of Kamal Jumblat and Bachir Gemayel are usually connected to Syria or Syrian backed groups). Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. Many see the Syrian Army's presence in Lebanon as an occupation, especially following the end of the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored Taif Agreement. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics that was deeply resented by many.
About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in the reconstruction of the country. Syrian workers were preferred over Palestinian and Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower wages, but some have argued that the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily dominated neighbor in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian colonization of Lebanon. Now, the economies of Syria and Lebanon are completely interdependent. In 1994, under pressure from Damascus, the Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over 200,000 Syrian residents in the country.(For more on these issues, see Demographics of Lebanon).

The authoritarian government was not without its critics, though open dissent was repressed. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Baath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the government. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing between 10.000 and 25.000 of dead and wounded, mostly civilians (see Hama massacre). Since then, public manifestations of anti-government activity have been limited.

Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the Western world. Syria participated in the multilateral Southwest Asia Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34. This allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad, to become legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On 10 July 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian Government statistics. He was inaugurated into office on 17 July 2000 for a 7-year term. He is married to Asma al-Assad, an activist herself and advocate of reforms.

Under Bashar al-Assad hundreds of political prisoners were released and a steps were taken towards easing media restrictions. However, Bashar al-Assad has made it clear that his priority is economic rather than political reform.

The summer of 2000 saw the birth of Damascus Spring after the arrival of President Bashar al-Assad to power, and his inauguration speech. This Spring did not last long, it ended in autumn 2001 when the security bodies froze the activities of intellectual, cultural and political forums. Although it lasted for a short period (6 months), it saw intensive political discussions and social debates. It still echoes during the political, cultural and intellectual debates in Syria till today.

Damascus Spring was seen by many as the opportunity towards democratic change in Syria, in line with power and society, which may spare the country a lot of bumps. Especially the presence of national Syrian opposition, which believes in a peaceful and gradual change, and the emergence of Islamists position close to the positions of the other opposition.

On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, charging it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad. The raid was in retaliation for the bombing of a restaurant in the Israeli town of Haifa that killed 19. Islamic Jihad said the camp was not in use; Syria said the attack was on a civilian area.

The United States moved closer to imposing sanctions on Syria, following the adoption of the Syria Accountability Act by the House of Representatives International Relations committee. Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah, all included in what the EU and the U.S view as terrorist groups, all take refuge and enjoy strong relationships with the Syrian government.

Syrian Kurds protest in Brussels, Geneva, in Germany at the US and UK embassies and in Turkey, against violence in north-east Syria starting Friday, 12 March 2004, and reportedly extending over the weekend resulting in several deaths, according to reports. The Kurds allege the Syrian government encouraged and armed the attackers. Signs of rioting were seen in the towns of Qameshli and Hassakeh.

On 6 September 2007, Israeli jet fighters carried out an air strike in the Deir ez-Zor Governorate, known as Operation Orchard, on a target claimed to be a nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians. Reportedly a number of the technicians were killed.

In April, 2008, President Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey acting as a mediator. This was confirmed in May, 2008, by a spokesman for Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. The status of the Golan Heights, a major obstacle to a peace treaty, is being discussed. President Assad was quoted in The Guardian as telling the Qatari paper:

...there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new US president takes office. The US was the only party qualified to sponsor any direct talks, President Assad told the paper, but added that the Bush administration "does not have the vision or will for the peace process. It does not have anything."